|
≤ |
Less than or Equal
to |
|
≥ |
Greater than or
Equal to |
|
C |
Carbon |
|
Cm |
Centimeter |
|
CT |
Conventional tillage |
|
F2 |
Fertilizer treatment 2 (NPK fertilizer to
target 70% of Yw) |
|
F3 |
Fertilizer treatment 3 (NPK fertilizer to
target 70% of Yw. + other nutrients, e.g. S, Zn & B. |
|
F4 |
Fertilizer treatment 4 (Half NPK fertilizer
rate to target 70% of Yw + FYM + Bio-slurry |
|
FAO |
Food and
Agriculture Organization |
|
FAOSTAT |
Food and Agriculture
Organization Corporate Statistical Database |
|
FI |
Fertilizer treatment 1(Control; 0N, 0P, 0K) |
|
H |
Hydrogen |
|
K |
Potassium |
|
Km |
Kilometer |
|
MOP |
Murate of potash |
|
N |
Nitrogen |
|
NPK |
Nitrogen, Phosphorus
and Potassium compound fertilizer |
|
O |
Oxygen |
|
P |
Phosphorus |
|
RCBD |
Randomized Complete
Block Design |
|
RT |
Reduced tillage |
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background Information
Maize (Zea mays L.) is one the annual crop belonging to the family poaceae (Gramineae) where other true and most important cereal crops all over the world belong. It is a 2-3 m high grass with the solid stem (stalk) 3-4cm in a diameter with district nodes and internodes ranging from 15-20.
Maize is widely cultivated
throughout the world in greater weight than any other cereals. According to FAO
(2014), total estimation of global production was almost 1.04 Billion metric
tons per annum. Maize has become a staple food in most part all over the world
with the total production of maize surpassing that of wheat and rice, it is
consumed directly by humans (often in form of masa), used for corn ethanol,
animal feed and other maize products such as corn starch and corn syrup, maize
have six types which are pod corn, dent corn, sweet corn, popcorn, flour corn
and flint corn. Sweet corn is usually grown for human consumption as kernel,
while field corn variety are used for animal feed (Daynard and Duncan 1969).
It is the cereal grain also
known as corn firstly domesticated by indigenous people in southern Mexico
about 10 000 years ago, the leafy stalk of the plant produces pollen
inflorescence and separates ovuliferous inflorescence called ears that produces
kernels or seeds which are fruits. Maize is the major cereal crop in Tanzania
(Wilson et al., 1973). Annual per
capita consumption of maize in Tanzania is estimated at 112.5 kilograms and
national maize consumption is estimated to reach three million tons per year.
Studies have shown that maize production was introduced firstly by Portuguese
on Pemba Island in the 16th and by 17th century spread to
other parts of Tanzania mainland including Iringa, Mbeya and Rukwa.
In most areas land use
intensification with minimum nutrient inputs has led to decreasing crop yields,
maize yields are low because of low soil fertility and little fertilizer use.
Yield response to nutrient application increases optimally due to the surplus
availability of the nutrients in the soil for plant absorption particularly N,P
and K(Kaizzi et al., 2012). However, High costs of fertilizers have become a major constraint for the
small holder farmers in the developing countries due to the low fertility
status of the soil.
Therefore, the adequate
amount of fertilizer applied to the maize contribute to good response of the
maize and the yields as they enhance rapid and high vegetative growth and
healthy green color of the maize leaves (Iken and Amusa, 2004).
1.2 Problem Statement and
Justification
Poor management practices is noticeable to cause low yields in maize production at Ilula, it include land use intensification without adequate nutrient inputs, Adoption of only one type of tillage practice which involves the deep tilling and inverting of the land using a disc plough on the whole field as the method of manipulating the field for crop establishment instead of Reduced (or conservational) tillage using a ripper that is ploughing only the planting lines, leaving the other part of the field untilled, continuous use of a single type of fertilizer which promote small holder farmers at Ilula with high and rapid growth of crop especially maize due to the release of only one type of nutrient from a particular fertilizer for a short period of time, Example N-releasing fertilizer which results into promotion of rapid vegetative growth and healthy green color (chlorophyll) followed by decline in yields, productivity and fertility of the soil in the following seasons. Inadequate understanding of the fertilizers both synthetic and organic leads to decreased yields as most of small-scale farmer at believes in the false perceptions that continuous use of synthetic fertilizer my result in the destruction of the soil physical, chemical as well as fertility level of the soil.
Reduced tillage helps to
minimizes the risk of exposing soil to weather extremes and agents of erosion
hence reduces soil reduces erosion, the practice minimizes destruction of soil
microorganisms, promoting successful and richness of biodiversity. It ensures
exact placement and utilization of the fertilizer by the plant, contributing to
higher yields. This practice suppresses weed growth, it is cheaper and saves
time required for land preparation, improves root penetration and results into
better water harvesting and storage due to minimum soil exposure as (no
inversion/turning of the soil).
This research on maize dry
grain weight in relation to the fertilizer application is expected to fill the gap,
establish baseline information and come up
with elucidation which will motivate and encourage farmers to practice and
adopt better tillage practice with fertilizer input for increased yields and
productivity.
1.3 Objective of the Study
1.3.1 General objective
This study was done to determine the effect and contribution of fertilizer types and tillage system on maize dry grain weight at farm for the future, Ilula, Tanzania.
1.3.2 Specific Objectives
i. Physical analysis of the maize grain on the field.
1.4 Hypothesis testing
Ho: There is no significant difference between the dry grain weight of maize in relation to fertilizers application and tillage practices
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATUE REVIEW
2.1 Maize Production in Tanzania
Maize is the one of the most important staple and food crops in Tanzania, it comprises 45% of the cultivated area. In the last four decades, Tanzania has ranked among the top 25 maize producing countries in the world. In the 2013/14 growing seasons Tanzania produced over half billion metric tons of maize of these maize smallholder farmers produced around 85%(Suleiman et al.,2015).The production of maize accounts for more than 70% of the cereal produced in the country for country, Though Tanzania is the largest producer in east Africa, the country still faces a lot off challenges of achieving full business potential such as poor trade policies by government and bureaucratic hurdles, high transaction costs including high taxes, costly export procedures, excessive transportation costs, corruption, poor infrastructures, low quality standards which do not reap from the existing trade opportunities.
Agriculture sector accounts
for about one-third of the gross domestic product (GDP), provides 85 percent of
all exports and saves as a livelihood to over 80 percent of the total population(Bianka et al., 2018). A National Maize Research Program (NMRP) was started in 1974
with the broad objective of developing cultivars suitable for major producing
area. (Nkonya, 1998).
Maize is a good source of
important nutrients. It contains 11.2% protein, 66.2% carbohydrate, 3.6% fat,
1.5% minerals and 2.7% fiber (Gopalan et
al., 1981). Additionally, it contains carotene, niacin, thiamine and
riboflavin. Maize grain makes 60% boiler feed where whole grain is used as
non-ruminants feed (Dalhke et al., 2001). In tropical countries
greater portion of yellow maize is more preferable for livestock feed (Sohany et al., 2017). Maize is an important industrial raw material in the starch,
feed and food industry. Maize provides greater nutritional value when it is
used as an ingredient in the food processing and feeding industry (Ullah et al., 2010). The increase of the grain yield of maize is
closely correlated with its seasonal dry matter accumulation. The 43–49% of the total organic dry matter of the maize plant is
stated in the kernel. The process of filling the kernels in is closely
correlated with the loss of moisture content and both are influenced by a host
of factors (Bellini and Fusi, 1961).
Carter and Polenit (1973) claim that the maximum dry matter of the
kernel ensues when the black layer appears in the kernel was a sign of
physiological maturity. Temperature and water supply are significant conditions
for the successful development of kernels (Kiesselbach, 1950). The temperature
and speed of kernel development are positively related (Duncan et al., 1965). Cool weather delays, high
temperature (>30 °C) shortens the time of maturity (Badu-Apraku et al., 1983, Tollenaar and Bruulsema
1988). After
physiological maturity, weather is the most important condition (Aldrich,
1975). The filling of kernels is connected with the loss of moisture content
(Afuakwa et al., 1984).
2.2 Factors Affecting Crop Yield and Dry Grain Weight of Maize
Dry matter accumulation is influenced by a number of factor including climatic factor such as rainfall and temperature and management practices such inadequate fertilizer inputs that have negative correlation with maize yields, the use of organic manure also can be a factor of low nutrients as they have low nutrient content, slow decomposition, and different nutrient compositions depending on its organic materials, compared to chemical fertilizers (Sattlelmacher et al., 1994).
2.2.1 Management practices
Additions of nutrients with fertilizers with organic or inorganic to provide nutrients like N, P, K, Fe, Al, Mn, Na and Ca and proper management are essential for a proper nutrient supply and maximum yields. Estimates of overall efficiency of applied fertilizer have been reported to be about or lower than 50% for N, less than 10% for P, and about 40% for K. Plants that are efficient in absorption and utilization of nutrients greatly enhance the efficiency of applied fertilizers, reducing cost of inputs, and preventing losses of nutrients to ecosystems and promote good yields (Baligar et al., 2001).
2.2.2 Climatic factors
Dry grain weight is positively correlated mean annual rainfall and temperature received by the area because they are the major factors affecting the photosynthesis and respiration and hence promote efficient accumulation of the dry matter content of maize. Critical physiological factors in successful grain storage is the moisture content of the crop and temperature. High moisture content encourages fungal and insect problems, respiration and germination. With lower temperatures, the metabolic rate of insects and fungi decreases and consequently so does the activity cause spoilage. A damp or warm spot in grain will increase the rate of respiration. In addition to heat, another product of respiration is moisture (Han et al., 2011).
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Project Area
This field experiment was conducted during rainy season (March to May) at Ilula Orphan Program (IOP)’s Farm, Ilula, Iringa Region, in Tanzania, The IOP farm is a non-governmental organization in Tanzania dealing with impact mitigation to determine the root cause and help to uproot the most vulnerable children (orphans from extremely poor families to generate income, empower single mothers through training socio-economic and agriculture). Geographically, it is located between latitudes 7°38, and 51o4, South of Equator and longitudes 36°0, and 05o.0, East of Greenwich meridian.
Ilula
is a town and ward in Kilolo district which lies in the northeastern part of Iringa region bordering Mufindi
District to the south, Iringa District to the west, Dodoma Region to the north,
and Morogoro Region to the east. The district covers an approximate land area
of 7,875 km2, and includes the Udzungwa mountain ranges. The high-altitude areas encounter
temperatures of 8°−10°C, and 1,000−1,600 mm of precipitation annually, while low altitude areas have
temperatures of 15°−27°C and 500−600 mm rainfall annually. According to Tanzania national
population census of 2012, Kilolo District has a population of 218,130, 51.5%
of which were women and 48.5% men. With the population of ilula ward being
28,117, This represented a 7% increase in population growth since 2002.
Agriculture is the
cornerstone of Kilolo District in terms of both food production and income
generation. Agriculture contributes to 83% of the district’s Gross Domestic
Product (GDP) and employs over 82% of the population. Popular and dominant food
crops include maize, beans, sorghum, and potatoes; common cash crops are
tomatoes, onions, pyrethrum, and sunflower. Of the land currently under crop
production, about 36% (59,400 ha) is dedicated to food crops such as maize,
beans, paddy, sorghum, sweet potatoes, and potatoes. The rest is shared among
cash crops and livestock. Maize alone accounts for 79% of the food crop
production area, and beans an additional 18%. The district produces over
44,000 tons of cash crops annually, with tomatoes accounting for 51% of this
total (about 22,670 tons) and onions an additional 30% (about 13,000 tons). The
remaining 19% is composed of pyrethrum, sunflower, sesame, groundnuts, coffee,
and other cash crops (FAO, 2012).
3.2 Materials
Maize seeds were used as planting material, Ripper machine was used for land preparation of reduced tillage that was used for plough only planting line and leave other field untouched ,Disc plough were used for land preparation on the whole field and hand hoe were used for farm levelling especially under conservational tillage and weed managements .Plastic ropes were used during the layout design, tape measure was used for taking measurements during the experimental layout, and pegs were used for demarcation of specific distances during land preparation and mark of piece paper indicate amount of treatment applied per plot. Fertilizer such YaraMila cereal (23%N,10%P,5%K,2%MgO,3% S, and 0.3%Zn),Murate of Potash (60%K2O)were used to supplement plant nutrients in the soil where by Yara Mila cereal and compost manure were mixed to make a full dose which was applied at planting stage and in order to accelerate growth of the maize crop. Note book and pen were used for taking field notes and data collection.
3.3 Experimental Design
3.3.1 Experimental set-up and treatments application
Four nutrient management options were combined with two tillage options with four replications, resulting in a total of eight different treatments. The trial has a split-plot design with tillage as main plots and the four fertilizer treatments as split plots (Fig. 2). There are four replications of each treatment with a plot size of 10.4 m by 10.8 m (16 rows at 65 cm, and 36 planting holes placed at 30 cm apart, resulting in a plant density of 5.13 plants/m2). Net plot (harvesting) size is 9.75 m x 10.5 m, equivalent to 102.375 m2. Liming was not required since soil analysis shows an average pH of 5.5 (4.6-6.3).
Replication 1
Replication 2
Replication 3
Replication 4
Figure 1: Split Plot Randomized Complete Block Design
CT: Conventional tillage
RT: Reduced tillage
FI: Control;0N, 0P;0P
F2: NPK fertilizer to target 70% of Yw
F3: NPK fertilizer to target 70% of Yw+ other nutrients, e.g. S, Zn & B.
F4: Half NPK fertilizer rate to target70% of Yw + FYM + Bio-slurry.
3.3.2 Fertilizer Treatments
The fertilizer treatments used include a control treatment (F1) without any fertilizer application, which was required to assess crop response to fertilizer application and to calculate fertilizer use efficiency. The unfertilized control was also for prevailing farmer practice in the region in particular if formerly barren land is cultivated for the first season as it was in this case. The (F2) and (F3) treatments supply N, P, and K at a rate that could accommodate NPK uptake of maize at 70% of its water-limited yield potential identified for the site at IOP Farm. Based on the GYGA and expert judgement the water-limited yield potential was estimated at 7 t maize grain per ha (at 85% dry matter), i.e. resulting in a target yield of 4.9 t/ha maize yield. We assumed 20 kg N uptake per t of grain, which resulted in 98 kg N/ha application rate (fig. 1). P and K rates were determined by the N-P-K ratio of the recommended fertilizer product YaraMila Cereal (used in F3). The F3 treatment investigated the potential benefit of applying the additional plant nutrients sulphur (S), magnesium (Mg) and zinc (Zn) knowing from previous soil analysis that these nutrients are frequently in deficiency. This treatment also represented the current Yara recommendation for maize grown in the Southern Highlands of Tanzania. The fourth fertilizer treatment (F4) included the use of organic material (composted manure) assuming to replace 50% of the mineral fertilizer.
3.3.3 Tillage
Treatments
All fertilizer treatments were combined with two different tillage practices as the main plots, (1) conventional tillage (CT) and (2) reduced tillage (RT). Conventional tillage represented common farmer’s practice and is achieved using a disc plough on the whole field. Reduced (or conservational) tillage is archived by using a ripper instead of a disc plough and ploughing only the planting lines, leaving the remainder of the field untouched. This minimizes soil exposed to the vagaries of weather (reduces erosion), minimizes destruction of soil flora and fauna ensuring a rich biodiversity. It ensures exact placement and mixing of fertilizer in the furrow, and hence fertilizer use efficient by the plant, leading to high yields. Also, it reduces the use of fossil fuel, hence a cleaner environment and cheaper farming operations (fewer runs than when whole field is tilled). Ripping results into better water harvesting and storage due to least soil exposure (no inversion/turning of the soil) and the deep strips that are formed collect and store more water. In the long run, this might enable minimum use of herbicides and tillage.
3.4 Seedbed Preparation
Method
The experiment started with land preparation followed by harrowing the field area on cultivated as convectional tillage plot. Then hole establishment for maize seed whichasbetweenrowwas65cmandwithinplantwas30cmateachplotand followed with treatment to be applied at each plot as follow. Total number 16 row at F1 plot there were no treatment applied (0N,0P,0K),F2 plot the NPK fertilizer was applied as recommended (NPKFertilizerwithtarget70%), F3 was applied with half fertilizer, other nutrients and F4 was applied with half fertilizer ,other nutrients and full of compost manure then allowed to be mixed the soil ready for establishment of seed to be sown.
3.4.1 Seeding method
The seed was applied depend on treatment applied as follows since at F1 seed was sown at 16 row without applied of treatment, F2 was sown at field with fertilizer as recommended, F3 seed were sown at field of 16 row mixed with half fertilizer and other nutrient such as,F4 seed was sown at field of 16 row with mixed half fertilizer other nutrients and full manure and total number of 36 plant seed were established at each row. After week followed with gap filling an area where are not yet emergence to ensure the uniformity.
3.4.2 Crop management
All other agronomic practices like pest control measure and weeding in order to reduce competition of available nutrient to the soil between plant and weed that invade field of growing crop were kept normal for all the treatments. Fertilizer application as top dressing ensured provision of nutrients supportive for development during vegetative growth and reproductive for success on yield increased, Pesticide application for controlling pest that were destructive to the maize plant. Two weeks after planting, the first weed control measure was taken. After two weeks (four weeks after planting) followed by insecticide application (spidex) to control fall armyworms which was observed to affect maize crop. Then after five weeks after planting (three weeks after the first weed control measure), second weed control measure was taken followed by split application of fertilizer treatments in exception of whole of full compost manure was incorporated only at sowing for the case of F4 treatment.
3.5 Sampling and Data Collection
The field research area has 32 plots, five sample was collected in a zigzag manner from each plot according to visual appearance of crop, insect and disease problems, which resulted into 160 maize samples. Dry matter values decreased evenly and slightly following physiological maturity hence, all representative samples were well labeled and packed in clean, unused and plastic paper bags to avoid contamination, and sent in the laboratory for analysis.
3.6 Laboratory Analysis of
the Maize dry gain Weight
Dry grain weigh was determined after drying the grain to constant weight in a drying cabinet/room at 60 °C with the help of dry oven to obtain the optimum amount of moisture content for the determination of dry grain weight of the maize, using the weighing balance, weight of representative sample from different plots was obtained.
3.7 Data Analysis
Data obtained from the field experimentation and laboratory dry grain weight of the maize will be analyzed using excel program, computer statistical GENGSTAT software and one-way ANOVA through a split plot design for mean and coefficient of variability to compare the tabulated F value and T value at P<0.05 level to explain the relationship between dry grain weight of maize in relation to fertilizers application and tillage practices.
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 RESULTS AND
DISCUSSION
Reduced tillage (RT) resulted on average in a 11% higher yield compared to conventional tillage (CT), but this difference was not significant, However, there were significant differences between the fertilizer treatments. If no fertilizer was added (F1) this resulted in the lowest yields, while the highest yields were obtained with the addition of NPK to target 70% of Yw (both the treatment with (F3) and without micronutrients (F2)). Overall, the lowest maize yield was obtained under conventional tillage without fertilizer application (CT-F1), and the highest with reduced tillage and NPK fertilizer to target 70% of Yw and the addition of micronutrients (RT-F3) Interestingly, reduced tillage resulted in an increase of almost 2 tonnes per ha when no fertiliser was applied (F1). Reduced tillage did not significantly increase maize yield when fertiliser was applied (F2 to F4) .The amount of fertilizer applied was aimed to target 70% of Yw, but in all cases it resulted in yields which were higher than the target, and in several cases 100% of Yw was reached ,One reason for the higher yields than expected could be the well distributed and sufficiently high precipitation during the growing season.
4.1 The Effect of Fertilizer
Treatments on Maize Dry Grain Weight
The results from Table 2 show that there were significant differences (P≤0.05) in dry grain weight among fertilizer treatments. Where significant differences (P≤0.05) among the means of fertilizer were observed at (F1 (control (0 N, 0 P & 0K)), F2 (N, P&K for 70% Yw), F3 (N, P&K + Other nutrients (S, Zn & Bo))and F4 (1 L full compost manure & 0.5 N, P&K + Other nutrients (S, Zn & Bo)).Where between fertilizers treatments on maize grain weight it resulted into grand mean (P Value <.001), The maximum maize grain weight was observed in the F4 plots with a value of 4251kg ha-1 ,this could be probably due to slow release of nutrients in manure at F4 ,3824 kg ha-1 in F3, 3694 kg ha-1 in F2 while in F1 showed minimum response to the grain weight of 397 kg ha-1 lower of all fertilizer treatments since no fertilizer was applied hence it was used as control treatment required to assess crop response to fertilizer application and to calculate fertilizer use efficiency.
Table 1: Fertilizer treatments on maize dry grain weight (kg ha-1)
However,
the combination of inorganic fertilizer and full compost manure that is F4 and
under reduced tillage system gave higher value of grain weight of 4968 kg ha-1.
Followed by when NPK fertilizer to target 70% of Yw. + other nutrients,
e.g. S, Zn & B that was F3 when used under reduced tillage system with
value of 4403 kg ha-1.When NPK alone that was F2 was used under
reduced tillage system gave the grain weight of 3709 kg ha-1.But the
control treatment that was F1 under convectional tillage system resulted into
minimum mean grain weight of all the treatments with a value of 205 kg ha-1
non-application of fertilizer, which implied that convectional tillage without
fertilization of the land may result into poor yields.
The
significant effect of Inorganic fertilizer was probably because its nutrients
are readily available for plant uptake. This agreed with the findings reported
by Berzsenyi Z. (2009) who observed significantly taller maize plants in plots
treated with inorganic fertilizer.
4.2 The Effect of Tillage System on Maize Dry Grain Weight
The results from Table 3 showed that there were significant differences (P≤0.05) in dry grain weight among tillage system used that is convectional tillage and reduced tillage, thus resulted into grand mean (P Value <.001) where, maximum grain weight were observed under reduced tillage with values of 3417 kg ha-1 due to minimization of soil exposed to the vagaries of weather and erosion, destruction of soil flora and fauna (hence encouraging a richer biodiversity), better water harvesting and storage due to least soil exposure in the long run, this might enable minimum use of herbicides and tillage. It ensured exact placement of fertilizer in the furrow, and hence better use of the fertilizer by the plant, resulting into, presumably, bigger harvests. While minimum grain weight was observed under convectional tillage with values of 2666 kg ha-1 likely to be caused by the exposure of soil to the vagaries of weather and erosion, destruction of soil flora and maximum use of herbicides and tillage.
Table 2: Effect of tillage system on Maize dry grain weight (kg ha-1)
Where
C1=convectional tillage, C2=conservation tillage
4.3 Interaction of Fertilizer Treatments and Tillage System on Maize Dry
Grain Weight
The results from Table 4 show that there were no significant differences (P≥0.05)) in dry grain weight among fertilizer treatments and tillage system used in all plots resulted into grand mean P Value of 0.035. The combination of inorganic fertilizer and full compost manure that is (RT-F4) and under reduced tillage system was observed to give maximum and higher value of grain weight of 4968 kg ha-1 followed by when NPK fertilizer to target 70% of Yw. + other nutrients, e.g. S, Zn & B that was (RT-F3) when used under reduced tillage system with value of 4403 kg ha-1 .When NPK alone that was (RT-F2) was used under reduced tillage system gave the grain weight of 3709 kg ha-1.But the control treatment that was (CT-F1) under convectional tillage system resulted into minimum mean grain weight of all the treatments with a value of 205 kg ha-1 since no application of fertilizer was done, which implied that convectional tillage without fertilization of the land may result into poor yields. The significant effect of Inorganic fertilizer was probably because its nutrients are readily available for plant uptake. This agreed with the findings reported by Berzsenyi Z. (2009) who observed significantly more grain weight in plots treated with inorganic fertilizer. However, the amount of fertilizer applied was aimed to target 70% of Yw, but in all cases it resulted in yields which were higher than the target, and in several cases ca. 100% of Yw was reached, One reason for the higher yields than expected could be the well distributed and sufficiently high precipitation during the growing season.
Table 3: Interaction of fertilizer
treatments and tillage system on Maize dry grain weight (kg ha-1)
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusion
From the results of this study, there was significant difference between the dry grain weight of maize in relation to fertilizers application and tillage practices. Reduced tillage (RT) resulted on average in a 11% higher yield compared to conventional tillage (CT), but this difference was not significant (P=0.38). However, there were significant differences between the fertilizer treatments. If no fertilizer was added (F1) this resulted in the lowest yields due to the low amount of nutrient supplied over soil for hence make yield performance become very lower while the highest yields were obtained with the addition of NPK to target 70% of Yw (both the treatment with (F3) that is (N, P&K + Other nutrients (S, Zn & Bo) and without micronutrients (F2) which was NPK fertilizer to target 70% of Yw at rate of 4.5 g gave the highest value of maize dry grain weight ,cob volume, and stem girth. Plant height, leaf length, leaf width because of nutrients applied on soil were used to improve soil structure that support increase of yield on maize and LAI components of maize which in turn influenced the grain weight of maize influenced by application of full compost manure and inorganic fertilizer. Maize plants fertilized tasseled early while non-fertilized delayed. Therefore, fertilizers where available can serve as a good nutrient source to maximize maize growth and yield.
5.2 Recommendations
Maize crop is highly needed by human beings for food and commercial purpose. Maize plants grow best in well- draining and nutrient-rich soils. Thus, application of full compost manure and inorganic fertilizer is recommended to ensure health of the crop and improve the soil physical, microbial properties and eventually increase yield performance of maize production while reduce the cost of inorganic fertilizer to farmers since will be needed at a small amount. in the field. Also, application of N, P&K + Other nutrients (S, Zn & Bo) and N, P&K for 70% Yw are recommended since increases the maize production but incur much cost for the acquisition of fertilizers. However, In order to increase yield performance of maize crop it is better to advice the farmer to do analysis of the soil to determine nutrient available in the soil for farm establishment ,the use of proper certified seed, timely planting and regular scouting of the field to determine any constraint that may rise on the field ,ensure proper water drainage system, well utilization of fertilizers ,early weeding and pesticide application in case a field was infected with pest and disease this was help to increase yield performance on maize.
1.1 Background Information
Maize (Zea mays L.) is one the annual crop belonging to the family poaceae (Gramineae) where other true and most important cereal crops all over the world belong. It is a 2-3 m high grass with the solid stem (stalk) 3-4cm in a diameter with district nodes and internodes ranging from 15-20.
Poor management practices is noticeable to cause low yields in maize production at Ilula, it include land use intensification without adequate nutrient inputs, Adoption of only one type of tillage practice which involves the deep tilling and inverting of the land using a disc plough on the whole field as the method of manipulating the field for crop establishment instead of Reduced (or conservational) tillage using a ripper that is ploughing only the planting lines, leaving the other part of the field untilled, continuous use of a single type of fertilizer which promote small holder farmers at Ilula with high and rapid growth of crop especially maize due to the release of only one type of nutrient from a particular fertilizer for a short period of time, Example N-releasing fertilizer which results into promotion of rapid vegetative growth and healthy green color (chlorophyll) followed by decline in yields, productivity and fertility of the soil in the following seasons. Inadequate understanding of the fertilizers both synthetic and organic leads to decreased yields as most of small-scale farmer at believes in the false perceptions that continuous use of synthetic fertilizer my result in the destruction of the soil physical, chemical as well as fertility level of the soil.
1.3.1 General objective
This study was done to determine the effect and contribution of fertilizer types and tillage system on maize dry grain weight at farm for the future, Ilula, Tanzania.
i. Physical analysis of the maize grain on the field.
Ho: There is no significant difference between the dry grain weight of maize in relation to fertilizers application and tillage practices
2.0 LITERATUE REVIEW
2.1 Maize Production in Tanzania
Maize is the one of the most important staple and food crops in Tanzania, it comprises 45% of the cultivated area. In the last four decades, Tanzania has ranked among the top 25 maize producing countries in the world. In the 2013/14 growing seasons Tanzania produced over half billion metric tons of maize of these maize smallholder farmers produced around 85%(Suleiman et al.,2015).The production of maize accounts for more than 70% of the cereal produced in the country for country, Though Tanzania is the largest producer in east Africa, the country still faces a lot off challenges of achieving full business potential such as poor trade policies by government and bureaucratic hurdles, high transaction costs including high taxes, costly export procedures, excessive transportation costs, corruption, poor infrastructures, low quality standards which do not reap from the existing trade opportunities.
2.2 Factors Affecting Crop Yield and Dry Grain Weight of Maize
Dry matter accumulation is influenced by a number of factor including climatic factor such as rainfall and temperature and management practices such inadequate fertilizer inputs that have negative correlation with maize yields, the use of organic manure also can be a factor of low nutrients as they have low nutrient content, slow decomposition, and different nutrient compositions depending on its organic materials, compared to chemical fertilizers (Sattlelmacher et al., 1994).
Additions of nutrients with fertilizers with organic or inorganic to provide nutrients like N, P, K, Fe, Al, Mn, Na and Ca and proper management are essential for a proper nutrient supply and maximum yields. Estimates of overall efficiency of applied fertilizer have been reported to be about or lower than 50% for N, less than 10% for P, and about 40% for K. Plants that are efficient in absorption and utilization of nutrients greatly enhance the efficiency of applied fertilizers, reducing cost of inputs, and preventing losses of nutrients to ecosystems and promote good yields (Baligar et al., 2001).
Dry grain weight is positively correlated mean annual rainfall and temperature received by the area because they are the major factors affecting the photosynthesis and respiration and hence promote efficient accumulation of the dry matter content of maize. Critical physiological factors in successful grain storage is the moisture content of the crop and temperature. High moisture content encourages fungal and insect problems, respiration and germination. With lower temperatures, the metabolic rate of insects and fungi decreases and consequently so does the activity cause spoilage. A damp or warm spot in grain will increase the rate of respiration. In addition to heat, another product of respiration is moisture (Han et al., 2011).
3.1 Project Area
This field experiment was conducted during rainy season (March to May) at Ilula Orphan Program (IOP)’s Farm, Ilula, Iringa Region, in Tanzania, The IOP farm is a non-governmental organization in Tanzania dealing with impact mitigation to determine the root cause and help to uproot the most vulnerable children (orphans from extremely poor families to generate income, empower single mothers through training socio-economic and agriculture). Geographically, it is located between latitudes 7°38, and 51o4, South of Equator and longitudes 36°0, and 05o.0, East of Greenwich meridian.
Maize seeds were used as planting material, Ripper machine was used for land preparation of reduced tillage that was used for plough only planting line and leave other field untouched ,Disc plough were used for land preparation on the whole field and hand hoe were used for farm levelling especially under conservational tillage and weed managements .Plastic ropes were used during the layout design, tape measure was used for taking measurements during the experimental layout, and pegs were used for demarcation of specific distances during land preparation and mark of piece paper indicate amount of treatment applied per plot. Fertilizer such YaraMila cereal (23%N,10%P,5%K,2%MgO,3% S, and 0.3%Zn),Murate of Potash (60%K2O)were used to supplement plant nutrients in the soil where by Yara Mila cereal and compost manure were mixed to make a full dose which was applied at planting stage and in order to accelerate growth of the maize crop. Note book and pen were used for taking field notes and data collection.
3.3 Experimental Design
3.3.1 Experimental set-up and treatments application
Four nutrient management options were combined with two tillage options with four replications, resulting in a total of eight different treatments. The trial has a split-plot design with tillage as main plots and the four fertilizer treatments as split plots (Fig. 2). There are four replications of each treatment with a plot size of 10.4 m by 10.8 m (16 rows at 65 cm, and 36 planting holes placed at 30 cm apart, resulting in a plant density of 5.13 plants/m2). Net plot (harvesting) size is 9.75 m x 10.5 m, equivalent to 102.375 m2. Liming was not required since soil analysis shows an average pH of 5.5 (4.6-6.3).
Replication 1
|
CT |
RT |
||||||
|
F1 |
F3 |
F2 |
F4 |
F4 |
F3 |
F1 |
F2 |
|
RT |
CT |
||||||
|
F4 |
F1 |
F3 |
F2 |
F1 |
F4 |
F2 |
F3 |
|
CT |
RT |
||||||
|
F2 |
F1 |
F3 |
F4 |
F1 |
F4 |
F2 |
F3 |
|
RT |
CT |
||||||
|
F3 |
F2 |
F4 |
F1 |
F3 |
F2 |
F4 |
F1 |
CT: Conventional tillage
RT: Reduced tillage
FI: Control;0N, 0P;0P
F2: NPK fertilizer to target 70% of Yw
F3: NPK fertilizer to target 70% of Yw+ other nutrients, e.g. S, Zn & B.
F4: Half NPK fertilizer rate to target70% of Yw + FYM + Bio-slurry.
3.3.2 Fertilizer Treatments
The fertilizer treatments used include a control treatment (F1) without any fertilizer application, which was required to assess crop response to fertilizer application and to calculate fertilizer use efficiency. The unfertilized control was also for prevailing farmer practice in the region in particular if formerly barren land is cultivated for the first season as it was in this case. The (F2) and (F3) treatments supply N, P, and K at a rate that could accommodate NPK uptake of maize at 70% of its water-limited yield potential identified for the site at IOP Farm. Based on the GYGA and expert judgement the water-limited yield potential was estimated at 7 t maize grain per ha (at 85% dry matter), i.e. resulting in a target yield of 4.9 t/ha maize yield. We assumed 20 kg N uptake per t of grain, which resulted in 98 kg N/ha application rate (fig. 1). P and K rates were determined by the N-P-K ratio of the recommended fertilizer product YaraMila Cereal (used in F3). The F3 treatment investigated the potential benefit of applying the additional plant nutrients sulphur (S), magnesium (Mg) and zinc (Zn) knowing from previous soil analysis that these nutrients are frequently in deficiency. This treatment also represented the current Yara recommendation for maize grown in the Southern Highlands of Tanzania. The fourth fertilizer treatment (F4) included the use of organic material (composted manure) assuming to replace 50% of the mineral fertilizer.
All fertilizer treatments were combined with two different tillage practices as the main plots, (1) conventional tillage (CT) and (2) reduced tillage (RT). Conventional tillage represented common farmer’s practice and is achieved using a disc plough on the whole field. Reduced (or conservational) tillage is archived by using a ripper instead of a disc plough and ploughing only the planting lines, leaving the remainder of the field untouched. This minimizes soil exposed to the vagaries of weather (reduces erosion), minimizes destruction of soil flora and fauna ensuring a rich biodiversity. It ensures exact placement and mixing of fertilizer in the furrow, and hence fertilizer use efficient by the plant, leading to high yields. Also, it reduces the use of fossil fuel, hence a cleaner environment and cheaper farming operations (fewer runs than when whole field is tilled). Ripping results into better water harvesting and storage due to least soil exposure (no inversion/turning of the soil) and the deep strips that are formed collect and store more water. In the long run, this might enable minimum use of herbicides and tillage.
The experiment started with land preparation followed by harrowing the field area on cultivated as convectional tillage plot. Then hole establishment for maize seed whichasbetweenrowwas65cmandwithinplantwas30cmateachplotand followed with treatment to be applied at each plot as follow. Total number 16 row at F1 plot there were no treatment applied (0N,0P,0K),F2 plot the NPK fertilizer was applied as recommended (NPKFertilizerwithtarget70%), F3 was applied with half fertilizer, other nutrients and F4 was applied with half fertilizer ,other nutrients and full of compost manure then allowed to be mixed the soil ready for establishment of seed to be sown.
The seed was applied depend on treatment applied as follows since at F1 seed was sown at 16 row without applied of treatment, F2 was sown at field with fertilizer as recommended, F3 seed were sown at field of 16 row mixed with half fertilizer and other nutrient such as,F4 seed was sown at field of 16 row with mixed half fertilizer other nutrients and full manure and total number of 36 plant seed were established at each row. After week followed with gap filling an area where are not yet emergence to ensure the uniformity.
3.4.2 Crop management
All other agronomic practices like pest control measure and weeding in order to reduce competition of available nutrient to the soil between plant and weed that invade field of growing crop were kept normal for all the treatments. Fertilizer application as top dressing ensured provision of nutrients supportive for development during vegetative growth and reproductive for success on yield increased, Pesticide application for controlling pest that were destructive to the maize plant. Two weeks after planting, the first weed control measure was taken. After two weeks (four weeks after planting) followed by insecticide application (spidex) to control fall armyworms which was observed to affect maize crop. Then after five weeks after planting (three weeks after the first weed control measure), second weed control measure was taken followed by split application of fertilizer treatments in exception of whole of full compost manure was incorporated only at sowing for the case of F4 treatment.
The field research area has 32 plots, five sample was collected in a zigzag manner from each plot according to visual appearance of crop, insect and disease problems, which resulted into 160 maize samples. Dry matter values decreased evenly and slightly following physiological maturity hence, all representative samples were well labeled and packed in clean, unused and plastic paper bags to avoid contamination, and sent in the laboratory for analysis.
Dry grain weigh was determined after drying the grain to constant weight in a drying cabinet/room at 60 °C with the help of dry oven to obtain the optimum amount of moisture content for the determination of dry grain weight of the maize, using the weighing balance, weight of representative sample from different plots was obtained.
Data obtained from the field experimentation and laboratory dry grain weight of the maize will be analyzed using excel program, computer statistical GENGSTAT software and one-way ANOVA through a split plot design for mean and coefficient of variability to compare the tabulated F value and T value at P<0.05 level to explain the relationship between dry grain weight of maize in relation to fertilizers application and tillage practices.
Reduced tillage (RT) resulted on average in a 11% higher yield compared to conventional tillage (CT), but this difference was not significant, However, there were significant differences between the fertilizer treatments. If no fertilizer was added (F1) this resulted in the lowest yields, while the highest yields were obtained with the addition of NPK to target 70% of Yw (both the treatment with (F3) and without micronutrients (F2)). Overall, the lowest maize yield was obtained under conventional tillage without fertilizer application (CT-F1), and the highest with reduced tillage and NPK fertilizer to target 70% of Yw and the addition of micronutrients (RT-F3) Interestingly, reduced tillage resulted in an increase of almost 2 tonnes per ha when no fertiliser was applied (F1). Reduced tillage did not significantly increase maize yield when fertiliser was applied (F2 to F4) .The amount of fertilizer applied was aimed to target 70% of Yw, but in all cases it resulted in yields which were higher than the target, and in several cases 100% of Yw was reached ,One reason for the higher yields than expected could be the well distributed and sufficiently high precipitation during the growing season.
The results from Table 2 show that there were significant differences (P≤0.05) in dry grain weight among fertilizer treatments. Where significant differences (P≤0.05) among the means of fertilizer were observed at (F1 (control (0 N, 0 P & 0K)), F2 (N, P&K for 70% Yw), F3 (N, P&K + Other nutrients (S, Zn & Bo))and F4 (1 L full compost manure & 0.5 N, P&K + Other nutrients (S, Zn & Bo)).Where between fertilizers treatments on maize grain weight it resulted into grand mean (P Value <.001), The maximum maize grain weight was observed in the F4 plots with a value of 4251kg ha-1 ,this could be probably due to slow release of nutrients in manure at F4 ,3824 kg ha-1 in F3, 3694 kg ha-1 in F2 while in F1 showed minimum response to the grain weight of 397 kg ha-1 lower of all fertilizer treatments since no fertilizer was applied hence it was used as control treatment required to assess crop response to fertilizer application and to calculate fertilizer use efficiency.
|
S/N |
Treatment |
Maize grain weight |
|
1. |
F1 |
397. |
|
2. |
F2 |
3694 |
|
3. |
F3 |
3824. |
|
4. |
F4 |
4251. |
|
|
P Value |
<.001 |
4.2 The Effect of Tillage System on Maize Dry Grain Weight
The results from Table 3 showed that there were significant differences (P≤0.05) in dry grain weight among tillage system used that is convectional tillage and reduced tillage, thus resulted into grand mean (P Value <.001) where, maximum grain weight were observed under reduced tillage with values of 3417 kg ha-1 due to minimization of soil exposed to the vagaries of weather and erosion, destruction of soil flora and fauna (hence encouraging a richer biodiversity), better water harvesting and storage due to least soil exposure in the long run, this might enable minimum use of herbicides and tillage. It ensured exact placement of fertilizer in the furrow, and hence better use of the fertilizer by the plant, resulting into, presumably, bigger harvests. While minimum grain weight was observed under convectional tillage with values of 2666 kg ha-1 likely to be caused by the exposure of soil to the vagaries of weather and erosion, destruction of soil flora and maximum use of herbicides and tillage.
|
Treatment |
Mean |
|
T1 |
2666 |
|
T2 |
3417 |
|
P value |
<.001 |
The results from Table 4 show that there were no significant differences (P≥0.05)) in dry grain weight among fertilizer treatments and tillage system used in all plots resulted into grand mean P Value of 0.035. The combination of inorganic fertilizer and full compost manure that is (RT-F4) and under reduced tillage system was observed to give maximum and higher value of grain weight of 4968 kg ha-1 followed by when NPK fertilizer to target 70% of Yw. + other nutrients, e.g. S, Zn & B that was (RT-F3) when used under reduced tillage system with value of 4403 kg ha-1 .When NPK alone that was (RT-F2) was used under reduced tillage system gave the grain weight of 3709 kg ha-1.But the control treatment that was (CT-F1) under convectional tillage system resulted into minimum mean grain weight of all the treatments with a value of 205 kg ha-1 since no application of fertilizer was done, which implied that convectional tillage without fertilization of the land may result into poor yields. The significant effect of Inorganic fertilizer was probably because its nutrients are readily available for plant uptake. This agreed with the findings reported by Berzsenyi Z. (2009) who observed significantly more grain weight in plots treated with inorganic fertilizer. However, the amount of fertilizer applied was aimed to target 70% of Yw, but in all cases it resulted in yields which were higher than the target, and in several cases ca. 100% of Yw was reached, One reason for the higher yields than expected could be the well distributed and sufficiently high precipitation during the growing season.
|
Fertilizer Tillage |
Mean |
|
F1 T1 |
205 a |
|
F1 T2 |
589 a |
|
F3 T1 |
3244 b |
|
F4 T1 |
3534 b |
|
F2 T1 |
3680 bc |
|
F2 T1 |
3709 bc |
|
F3 T1 |
4403 cd |
|
F2 T1 |
4968 d |
|
P value |
0.035 |
|
CV% |
16.4% |
5.1 Conclusion
From the results of this study, there was significant difference between the dry grain weight of maize in relation to fertilizers application and tillage practices. Reduced tillage (RT) resulted on average in a 11% higher yield compared to conventional tillage (CT), but this difference was not significant (P=0.38). However, there were significant differences between the fertilizer treatments. If no fertilizer was added (F1) this resulted in the lowest yields due to the low amount of nutrient supplied over soil for hence make yield performance become very lower while the highest yields were obtained with the addition of NPK to target 70% of Yw (both the treatment with (F3) that is (N, P&K + Other nutrients (S, Zn & Bo) and without micronutrients (F2) which was NPK fertilizer to target 70% of Yw at rate of 4.5 g gave the highest value of maize dry grain weight ,cob volume, and stem girth. Plant height, leaf length, leaf width because of nutrients applied on soil were used to improve soil structure that support increase of yield on maize and LAI components of maize which in turn influenced the grain weight of maize influenced by application of full compost manure and inorganic fertilizer. Maize plants fertilized tasseled early while non-fertilized delayed. Therefore, fertilizers where available can serve as a good nutrient source to maximize maize growth and yield.
Maize crop is highly needed by human beings for food and commercial purpose. Maize plants grow best in well- draining and nutrient-rich soils. Thus, application of full compost manure and inorganic fertilizer is recommended to ensure health of the crop and improve the soil physical, microbial properties and eventually increase yield performance of maize production while reduce the cost of inorganic fertilizer to farmers since will be needed at a small amount. in the field. Also, application of N, P&K + Other nutrients (S, Zn & Bo) and N, P&K for 70% Yw are recommended since increases the maize production but incur much cost for the acquisition of fertilizers. However, In order to increase yield performance of maize crop it is better to advice the farmer to do analysis of the soil to determine nutrient available in the soil for farm establishment ,the use of proper certified seed, timely planting and regular scouting of the field to determine any constraint that may rise on the field ,ensure proper water drainage system, well utilization of fertilizers ,early weeding and pesticide application in case a field was infected with pest and disease this was help to increase yield performance on maize.
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